Instruments & Systems
Every IFR-required instrument has known failure modes. Knowing how each one works mechanically — what drives it, what can fail it, and what the remaining instruments will tell you when it does — is the foundation of partial-panel flying. Each sub-page below is a focused deep-dive on one instrument family.
Pressure-driven and gyroscopic instruments
Pitot-Static System
Altimeter, VSI, ASI, types of airspeed (IAS/CAS/EAS/TAS/GS), and the diagnostic table for pitot vs static blockages.
Gyroscopic Instruments
Attitude indicator, turn coordinator, heading indicator, HSI. Vacuum vs electric power split, and partial-panel scenarios.
Magnetic Compass
The fail-safe nav reference. Variation, deviation, ANDS acceleration error, UNOS turning error.
Radio navigation
Navigation Receivers (ADF / DME)
Legacy nav aids — ADF (Automatic Direction Finder) and DME (Distance Measuring Equipment). Slant range error explained.
GPS & Modern Nav
GPS, WAAS, RAIM, transponder modes, ADS-B Out (§ 91.225) and In (TIS-B/FIS-B), marker beacons.